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The 1911 Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution, is an important milestone in China’s history. In the past 100 years, China has transformed from an impoverished nation to a prosperous one. Great political, economic, cultural and social changes have taken place.
Painstaking efforts
The 1911 Revolution was not just a matter of chance. It was the result of deep-rooted social conflicts.
After the Opium War of 1840, China gradually declined into a semi-colonial and semi-feudal state. Colonists and imperialists waged several wars against China, and forced China to sign a number of unequal treaties. Through these treaties, they turned the feudal ruling class in China into their tools, and firmly controlled China’s political and military affairs; on the other hand, they also exploited China economically, and thwarted the growth of China’s indigenous capitalism and productivity.
Under the dual oppression of imperialism and feudalism, China faced serious internal and external crises. In 1895, Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the main leader of the 1911 Revolution, pointed out that internationally, China was looked down upon and surrounded by strong powers; and internally, the government was corrupt, bandits were rampant, and people suffered from starvation and lived miserable lives.
At the time the major conflicts in Chinese society were the conflicts between imperialists and the Chinese nation, and those between feudalists and the general public. The former was dominant. Invasion by imperialists was the fundamental cause for China’s weakness and poverty in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In this situation, to salvage and rejuvenate the nation, it was necessary to fight both the imperialists and their vassal feudalists. This fundamental necessity gave rise to the revolutionary movements in modern Chinese history including the 1911 Revolution.
In fact, China’s modern history is a succession of anti-imperialism and anti-feudalism struggles for national liberation and for the prosperity and well being of all Chinese people.
Before the 1911 Revolution, the Chinese people fought against foreign invaders during the Opium War of 1840, the Second Opium War in 1856-60, the Sino-French War in 1884-85, the Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95 and in resistance to the Eight-Power Allied Forces of Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, Japan, Italy and Austria in 1900.
As a result of its corrupt social system and backward economy and technology, China lost all those wars.
Given the failure of the ruling class to resist foreign aggression, ordinary Chinese people, especially farmers, took up arms to fight against both feudal rulers and imperialists. The most famous armed struggles were the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement in 1851-1864 and the Yihetuan Movement, known as the Boxer Uprising in the West, in 1900. These two movements, however, ended in failure.
Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95, reformers in the Qing (1644-1911) court sought to reform China’s feudal political system and introduce elements from Western systems of governance. But the 103-day Reform Movement of 1898 was opposed by feudal conservatives, and was finally throttled by the faction led by Empress Dowager Cixi, the de facto ruler of China at that time.
Despite their impact on the Chinese nation’s fight against imperialist and feudalists, the abovementioned struggles failed to deliver any systematic political programs. Only the 1911 Revolution was a real bourgeoisie democratic revolution. Sun set out to rejuvenate the Chinese nation, and put forth the Three People’s Principles, namely, the principle of nationalism, the principle of democracy and the principle of people’s livelihoods. He made explicit his objective of overthrowing the feudal monarchy and establishing a democratic republic. Great significance
The 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing government, ending two-millennium of autocratic rule in China. This was a great achievement. Yet this revolution did not bring real national independence and democracy, nor did it change the semicolonial and semi-feudal nature of Chinese society. Shortly after the 1911 Revolution, the once united country soon descended into civil war between rival warlords. In this sense, the 1911 Revolution was not successful.
But its failures not withstanding the 1911 Revolution was of great historical significance, for it opened China’s door to progress and emancipated people’s thoughts. The once supreme and divine autocratic monarchy was denounced as evil and backward, and the common people long subject to feudal rule were declared to be the masters of the country.
While drafting the provisional constitution of the Republic of China founded after the 1911 Revolution, Sun insisted on adding a clause stating the sovereignty of the newly founded republic belongs to all its people. This had a great and far-reaching impact on the politics of China, as it made the establishment of future dictatorships impossible.
The 1911 Revolution also changed people’s moral outlook, social customs and living habits. For instance, people no longer had to kneel to officials. Men no longer braided their hair, and women no longer bonded their feet. Planting and smoking opi- um was banned. Science was promoted and superstitious activities were opposed. These efforts reinvigorated the people and greatly changed the social environment.
The 1911 Revolution promoted social and economic development in China. The new republican government promulgated policies and regulations to boost industrial and commercial growth, which brought about an economic boom. In the early years of the 1910s, the scale of industrial production far exceeded the aggregate production of the last few decades of the late Qing Dynasty. Obvious progress was made in the fields of public health, education and the development of the press.
The revolutionaries actively sought to build a united nation. In the build up to the revolution, they put out anti-Manchu slogans, yet they were essentially opposed to the autocratic monarchy dominated by Manchurian aristocrats, not to the Manchurian people as a whole. After the demise of the Qing Dynasty, the revolutionaries stressed their wish to eradicate ethnic inequality and promote national harmony. Sun said equality among all ethnic groups in China was essential for common prosperity and China’s role in maintaining world peace.
The 1911 Revolution also created the conditions for the birth of the Communist Party of China (CPC), which came into being 10 years after 1911. The two significant historical events were intrinsically linked.
The mind emancipation movement after the 1911 Revolution facilitated the dissemination of various political and social theories, including Marxism. After the bourgeoisie’s dream to establish a republic was smashed people began to seek new paths, and some chose socialism.
The development of national capitalism after the 1911 Revolution boosted the growth of the proletariat, an important social class for the CPC. Some early CPC members either actively participated in the 1911 Revolution or were inspired by it. Since its inception, the CPC has always regarded its undertaking as a continuation and extension of the 1911 Revolution.
After the turn of the 20th century, China has gone through three dramatic historical changes, namely the 1911 Revolution, the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, and the reform and opening up in the past three decades. The three historical changes are like staircases, and China had to scale them one after another to reach a higher stage of development.
Lasting legacy
The 1911 Revolution participants’heroism is a valuable spiritual asset of the Chinese nation. To change the destiny of the Chinese nation and build a strong and prosperous country, Sun and his comradesin-arms risked their lives participating in a struggle rife with hardship and dangers. Many sacrificed their lives but the movement persevered and continued to pursue its lofty goals.
For instance, Qiu Jin (1875-1907), a female revolutionary killed by the Qing court after leading an uprising in her hometown in Zhejiang Province, said she was prepared to die for the cause.
The revolutionaries cared about the people, and were determined to benefit the people. Sun once said the aim of the revolution was to free people of their worries and make them happy. When criticized and told that the revolution would only destroy and not create, the revolutionaries replied only after corrupt political power was toppled could the people be adequately fed and clad.
The revolutionaries monitored global developments and looked at things from an international perspective. While thinking about the destiny of their country, Sun and his comrades-in-arms usually took into consideration the international situation, and made decisions that accorded with the trends of the time. Sun said to solve China’s problems, it was necessary to learn from other countries’ strengths.
Sun himself also advanced with the times. He had gradually changed his mind from peaceful reform to armed rebellion against the Qing court, from seeking a bourgeoisie republic to following the path of Soviet Russia. While he initially relied on some warlords to implement policies, Sun eventually made his three great policies of alliance with the Soviet Union, cooperation with the CPC and assistance to the workers and peasants in January 1924.
The revolutionaries were keenly aware of China’s historical responsibility in contributing to mankind’s development. In 1904, Sun wrote a letter to the American people, saying if the revolutionaries’ goals were achieved China and all human beings would have a brighter future.
Today, the spiritual forces that drove the revolutionaries a century ago still propel the Chinese people to continue to build a stronger country.
Painstaking efforts
The 1911 Revolution was not just a matter of chance. It was the result of deep-rooted social conflicts.
After the Opium War of 1840, China gradually declined into a semi-colonial and semi-feudal state. Colonists and imperialists waged several wars against China, and forced China to sign a number of unequal treaties. Through these treaties, they turned the feudal ruling class in China into their tools, and firmly controlled China’s political and military affairs; on the other hand, they also exploited China economically, and thwarted the growth of China’s indigenous capitalism and productivity.
Under the dual oppression of imperialism and feudalism, China faced serious internal and external crises. In 1895, Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the main leader of the 1911 Revolution, pointed out that internationally, China was looked down upon and surrounded by strong powers; and internally, the government was corrupt, bandits were rampant, and people suffered from starvation and lived miserable lives.
At the time the major conflicts in Chinese society were the conflicts between imperialists and the Chinese nation, and those between feudalists and the general public. The former was dominant. Invasion by imperialists was the fundamental cause for China’s weakness and poverty in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
In this situation, to salvage and rejuvenate the nation, it was necessary to fight both the imperialists and their vassal feudalists. This fundamental necessity gave rise to the revolutionary movements in modern Chinese history including the 1911 Revolution.
In fact, China’s modern history is a succession of anti-imperialism and anti-feudalism struggles for national liberation and for the prosperity and well being of all Chinese people.
Before the 1911 Revolution, the Chinese people fought against foreign invaders during the Opium War of 1840, the Second Opium War in 1856-60, the Sino-French War in 1884-85, the Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95 and in resistance to the Eight-Power Allied Forces of Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Russia, Japan, Italy and Austria in 1900.
As a result of its corrupt social system and backward economy and technology, China lost all those wars.
Given the failure of the ruling class to resist foreign aggression, ordinary Chinese people, especially farmers, took up arms to fight against both feudal rulers and imperialists. The most famous armed struggles were the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement in 1851-1864 and the Yihetuan Movement, known as the Boxer Uprising in the West, in 1900. These two movements, however, ended in failure.
Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95, reformers in the Qing (1644-1911) court sought to reform China’s feudal political system and introduce elements from Western systems of governance. But the 103-day Reform Movement of 1898 was opposed by feudal conservatives, and was finally throttled by the faction led by Empress Dowager Cixi, the de facto ruler of China at that time.
Despite their impact on the Chinese nation’s fight against imperialist and feudalists, the abovementioned struggles failed to deliver any systematic political programs. Only the 1911 Revolution was a real bourgeoisie democratic revolution. Sun set out to rejuvenate the Chinese nation, and put forth the Three People’s Principles, namely, the principle of nationalism, the principle of democracy and the principle of people’s livelihoods. He made explicit his objective of overthrowing the feudal monarchy and establishing a democratic republic. Great significance
The 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing government, ending two-millennium of autocratic rule in China. This was a great achievement. Yet this revolution did not bring real national independence and democracy, nor did it change the semicolonial and semi-feudal nature of Chinese society. Shortly after the 1911 Revolution, the once united country soon descended into civil war between rival warlords. In this sense, the 1911 Revolution was not successful.
But its failures not withstanding the 1911 Revolution was of great historical significance, for it opened China’s door to progress and emancipated people’s thoughts. The once supreme and divine autocratic monarchy was denounced as evil and backward, and the common people long subject to feudal rule were declared to be the masters of the country.
While drafting the provisional constitution of the Republic of China founded after the 1911 Revolution, Sun insisted on adding a clause stating the sovereignty of the newly founded republic belongs to all its people. This had a great and far-reaching impact on the politics of China, as it made the establishment of future dictatorships impossible.
The 1911 Revolution also changed people’s moral outlook, social customs and living habits. For instance, people no longer had to kneel to officials. Men no longer braided their hair, and women no longer bonded their feet. Planting and smoking opi- um was banned. Science was promoted and superstitious activities were opposed. These efforts reinvigorated the people and greatly changed the social environment.
The 1911 Revolution promoted social and economic development in China. The new republican government promulgated policies and regulations to boost industrial and commercial growth, which brought about an economic boom. In the early years of the 1910s, the scale of industrial production far exceeded the aggregate production of the last few decades of the late Qing Dynasty. Obvious progress was made in the fields of public health, education and the development of the press.
The revolutionaries actively sought to build a united nation. In the build up to the revolution, they put out anti-Manchu slogans, yet they were essentially opposed to the autocratic monarchy dominated by Manchurian aristocrats, not to the Manchurian people as a whole. After the demise of the Qing Dynasty, the revolutionaries stressed their wish to eradicate ethnic inequality and promote national harmony. Sun said equality among all ethnic groups in China was essential for common prosperity and China’s role in maintaining world peace.
The 1911 Revolution also created the conditions for the birth of the Communist Party of China (CPC), which came into being 10 years after 1911. The two significant historical events were intrinsically linked.
The mind emancipation movement after the 1911 Revolution facilitated the dissemination of various political and social theories, including Marxism. After the bourgeoisie’s dream to establish a republic was smashed people began to seek new paths, and some chose socialism.
The development of national capitalism after the 1911 Revolution boosted the growth of the proletariat, an important social class for the CPC. Some early CPC members either actively participated in the 1911 Revolution or were inspired by it. Since its inception, the CPC has always regarded its undertaking as a continuation and extension of the 1911 Revolution.
After the turn of the 20th century, China has gone through three dramatic historical changes, namely the 1911 Revolution, the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, and the reform and opening up in the past three decades. The three historical changes are like staircases, and China had to scale them one after another to reach a higher stage of development.
Lasting legacy
The 1911 Revolution participants’heroism is a valuable spiritual asset of the Chinese nation. To change the destiny of the Chinese nation and build a strong and prosperous country, Sun and his comradesin-arms risked their lives participating in a struggle rife with hardship and dangers. Many sacrificed their lives but the movement persevered and continued to pursue its lofty goals.
For instance, Qiu Jin (1875-1907), a female revolutionary killed by the Qing court after leading an uprising in her hometown in Zhejiang Province, said she was prepared to die for the cause.
The revolutionaries cared about the people, and were determined to benefit the people. Sun once said the aim of the revolution was to free people of their worries and make them happy. When criticized and told that the revolution would only destroy and not create, the revolutionaries replied only after corrupt political power was toppled could the people be adequately fed and clad.
The revolutionaries monitored global developments and looked at things from an international perspective. While thinking about the destiny of their country, Sun and his comrades-in-arms usually took into consideration the international situation, and made decisions that accorded with the trends of the time. Sun said to solve China’s problems, it was necessary to learn from other countries’ strengths.
Sun himself also advanced with the times. He had gradually changed his mind from peaceful reform to armed rebellion against the Qing court, from seeking a bourgeoisie republic to following the path of Soviet Russia. While he initially relied on some warlords to implement policies, Sun eventually made his three great policies of alliance with the Soviet Union, cooperation with the CPC and assistance to the workers and peasants in January 1924.
The revolutionaries were keenly aware of China’s historical responsibility in contributing to mankind’s development. In 1904, Sun wrote a letter to the American people, saying if the revolutionaries’ goals were achieved China and all human beings would have a brighter future.
Today, the spiritual forces that drove the revolutionaries a century ago still propel the Chinese people to continue to build a stronger country.