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【Abstract】This paper describes the definition of washback and brief development of washback studies. Based on theoretical frameworks and methodologies of washback study， some suggestions are provided for language testing washback research and language teachers’ teaching.
【Key words】washback； language teaching
The term “washback” particular refers to the effect or reaction of testing on teaching and learning in the field of education. Linguists hold that washback is the influence that an exam has on the way in which students are taught both positive and negative. It is an important concept in applied linguistics and means the direction of teachers’ teaching and students’ learning to some extent.
1. Suggestions in methodologies of washback
Among theoretical studies on washback， it’s easy to find that there are two major research directions， high-stake examination. In addition， there are three common instruments used in the research： interview， classroom observation and questionnaire. There are three most widely used theoretical models of washback， which are Alderson and Wall’s washback hypotheses， Hughes’ PPP washback model and Gu’s PPPP model. Based on these theoretical frameworks and methodologies of washback study， following are three suggestions of washback research.
First of all， classroom observation is mainly investigates the actual situation of classroom activities. In the process of observation， attention is focused on some variables of classroom activities， such as teachers’ behavior， students’ behavior， teachers’ language and classroom interaction. There are two kinds of classroom observation， pre-observation and post-observation. The pre-observation is based on the research purpose to finds out new questions in order to design interview and questionnaire and ensure the validity. The post-observation mainly focus on whether the subjects’ behavior could match what they described， and then guarantee the validity of research.
Secondly， inquiry concludes questionnaire and interview in the research. Interview is a kind of qualitative research and has good validity. So based on the interview， the validity of questionnaire could be improved and the results could be generalized. Therefore， questionnaire and interview naturally complement each other and promote research quality improvement. Hence， in the further research of washback， it’s important to consider validity and reliability of research according to the facts of the situation. Finally， the subjects of washback research are selected rather than from sampling. Usually， the subjects conclude teaching researchers， test-designers， teachers， students， parents and school authorities. According to the requirement of research， these subjects could be reselected and changed into a more suitable one.
Washback studies generally focus on unintended and indirect consequences of testing. They are usually the function of multiple factors related to the test， context and participants. It is true that investigations on washback are never straightforward because of the involvement of multiple factors.
2. Suggestions for language teachers
A large number of empirical studies reveal that teachers play a vital role in bringing about washback effects， be they positive or negative. Therefore， classroom teachers should be a fundamental component of any collaborative empirical investigations on washback. They play an important role in terms of pedagogical implementations of bringing about positive washback intended by test developers and policy-makers， and expected by students and parents. Following are some suggestions for language teachers.
Language teachers could learn from washback studies and increase awareness of the existence of washback， understand the factors that possibly influence washback， and build up their knowledge of educational theories related to washback. Firstly， teachers need to realize that assessment shapes the curriculum and pedagogy in certain ways， such as teaching-towards-test demands and practicing test-like items in class. Secondly， teachers ought to be aware of those active agents that can influence their teaching and students’ learning. Thirdly， teachers need to build up and enrich their knowledge of educational theories related to an array of factors of washback.
In the end， washback used in language testing and language teaching can provide better guidance for learners. We could use it scientifically to improve language learning ability.
References：
[1]Bailey，K.M.1996.Working for washback：a review of the washback concept in language testing[J].Language Testing，13（3）： 257-279.
[2]亓魯霞.NMET的反拨作用[J].外语教学与研究，2004（5）：357-373.
【Key words】washback； language teaching
The term “washback” particular refers to the effect or reaction of testing on teaching and learning in the field of education. Linguists hold that washback is the influence that an exam has on the way in which students are taught both positive and negative. It is an important concept in applied linguistics and means the direction of teachers’ teaching and students’ learning to some extent.
1. Suggestions in methodologies of washback
Among theoretical studies on washback， it’s easy to find that there are two major research directions， high-stake examination. In addition， there are three common instruments used in the research： interview， classroom observation and questionnaire. There are three most widely used theoretical models of washback， which are Alderson and Wall’s washback hypotheses， Hughes’ PPP washback model and Gu’s PPPP model. Based on these theoretical frameworks and methodologies of washback study， following are three suggestions of washback research.
First of all， classroom observation is mainly investigates the actual situation of classroom activities. In the process of observation， attention is focused on some variables of classroom activities， such as teachers’ behavior， students’ behavior， teachers’ language and classroom interaction. There are two kinds of classroom observation， pre-observation and post-observation. The pre-observation is based on the research purpose to finds out new questions in order to design interview and questionnaire and ensure the validity. The post-observation mainly focus on whether the subjects’ behavior could match what they described， and then guarantee the validity of research.
Secondly， inquiry concludes questionnaire and interview in the research. Interview is a kind of qualitative research and has good validity. So based on the interview， the validity of questionnaire could be improved and the results could be generalized. Therefore， questionnaire and interview naturally complement each other and promote research quality improvement. Hence， in the further research of washback， it’s important to consider validity and reliability of research according to the facts of the situation. Finally， the subjects of washback research are selected rather than from sampling. Usually， the subjects conclude teaching researchers， test-designers， teachers， students， parents and school authorities. According to the requirement of research， these subjects could be reselected and changed into a more suitable one.
Washback studies generally focus on unintended and indirect consequences of testing. They are usually the function of multiple factors related to the test， context and participants. It is true that investigations on washback are never straightforward because of the involvement of multiple factors.
2. Suggestions for language teachers
A large number of empirical studies reveal that teachers play a vital role in bringing about washback effects， be they positive or negative. Therefore， classroom teachers should be a fundamental component of any collaborative empirical investigations on washback. They play an important role in terms of pedagogical implementations of bringing about positive washback intended by test developers and policy-makers， and expected by students and parents. Following are some suggestions for language teachers.
Language teachers could learn from washback studies and increase awareness of the existence of washback， understand the factors that possibly influence washback， and build up their knowledge of educational theories related to washback. Firstly， teachers need to realize that assessment shapes the curriculum and pedagogy in certain ways， such as teaching-towards-test demands and practicing test-like items in class. Secondly， teachers ought to be aware of those active agents that can influence their teaching and students’ learning. Thirdly， teachers need to build up and enrich their knowledge of educational theories related to an array of factors of washback.
In the end， washback used in language testing and language teaching can provide better guidance for learners. We could use it scientifically to improve language learning ability.
References：
[1]Bailey，K.M.1996.Working for washback：a review of the washback concept in language testing[J].Language Testing，13（3）： 257-279.
[2]亓魯霞.NMET的反拨作用[J].外语教学与研究，2004（5）：357-373.